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Deserts are formed in regions with less than 25 cm of annual rainfall, .or sometimes in hot regions where there is more rainfall, but unevenly distributed in the annual cycle. Lack’ of rain in the mid latitude is often due to stable high pressure zones; deserts in temperate regions often lie in “rain shadows”, that … Read more Hot DESERT ECOSYSTEM
found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year, not enough to support a forest, but more than that of a true desert. vegetation formations that are generally found in temperate climates. In India, they are found mainly in the high Himalayas. The rest of India’s grasslands are mainly composed of steppes and savannas. … Read more GRASSLAND ECOSYTEM
Forest types in India are classified by Champion and Seth into sixteen types. Tropical Wet evergreen forests are found along the Western Ghats, the Nicobar and Andaman Islands and all along the north-eastern region. It is characterized by tall, straight evergreen trees. The trees in this forest form a tier pattern: Beautiful fern … Read more INDIAN FOREST TYPES
Forest ecosystem includes a complex assemblage of different kinds of biotic communities. Optimum conditions such as temperature and ground moisture are responsible for the establishment of forest communities. Forests may be evergreen or deciduous which are distinguished on the basis of leaf into broad-leafed or needle leafed coniferous forests in the case of temperate areas. … Read more FOREST ECOSYSTEM
a universal process of directional change in vegetation, on an ecological time scale. occurs when a series of communities replace one another due to large scale destruction either natural or manmade. continously -one community replacing another community, until a stable, mature community develops. The first plant to colonise an area is called the pioneer … Read more SUCCESSION
The elements or mineral nutrients are always in circulation moving from non-living to living and then back to the non-living components of the ecosystem in a more or less circular fashion. This circular fashion is known as biogeochemical cycling (bio for living; geo for atmosphere). Nutrient Cycling: The nutrient cycle is a concept that describes … Read more BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
The interaction between the organisms is fundamental for its survival and functioning of ecosystem as a whole. Type of Biotic Interaction Mutualism: both species benefit. Example: in pollination mutualisms, the pollinator gets food (pollen, nectar), and the plant has its pollen transferred to other flowers for cross-fertilization (reproduction). Commensalism: one species benefits, the … Read more BIOTIC INTERACTION
Movement of these pollutants involves two main processes: Bioaccumulation refers to how pollutants enter a food chain. there is an increase in concentration of a pollutant from the environment to the first organism in a food chain. Biomagnification refers to the tendency of pollutants to concentrate as they move from one trophic … Read more POLLUTANTS AND TROPHIC LEVEL
ENERGY FLOW- Energy is the basic force responsible for all metabolic activities. The flow of energy from producer to top consumers is called energy flow which is unidirectional. Energy flows through the trophic levels: from producers to subsequent trophic levels. There is a loss of some energy in the form of unusable heat at … Read more FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Biosphere is a part of the earth where life can exist. represents a highly integrated and interacting zone comprising of atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water) and lithosphere (land) Life in the biosphere is abundant between 200 metres (660 feet) below the surface of the ocean and about 6,000 metres (20,000 feet) above sea level. absent at … Read more Biosphere
Aquatic systems are not called biomes, The major differences between the various aquatic zones are due to salinity, levels of dissolved nutrients; water temperature, depth of sunlight penetration. Fresh Water Ecosystem-Fresh water ecosystem are classified as lotic (moving water) or lentic (still or stagnant water). Marine Ecosystem- Estuaries-Coastal bays, river mouths and … Read more Aquatic Zones
Biome The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible into enormous regions called biomes, which are characterized, by climate, vegetation, animal life and general soil type. No two biomes are alike. The most important climatic factors are temperature and precipitation. Tundra- Northern most region adjoining the ice bound poles. Devoid of trees except stunted shrubs … Read more Biomes and Its types
Niche:- a description of all the biological, physical and chemical factors that a species needs to survive, stay healthy and reproduce. No two species have exact identical niches. Niche plays an important role in conservation of organisms. Types of Niche Habitat niche – where it lives Food niche – what is eats or decomposes … Read more Niche
Natural Ecosystem- Terrestrial- Forests, Grasslands, Deserts Aquatic- Fresh Waters, Saline Waters, Marine Waters Ecotone :- a zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems. For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem. Characteristics of Ecotone It may be very narrow or quite wide. It has the conditions intermediate … Read more Classification of Eco-system
The components of the ecosystem is categorised into abiotic of non-living and biotic of living components. Both the components of ecosystem and environment are same. Abiotic Components the inorganic and non-living parts of the world. consists of soil, water, air, and light energy etc. involves a ,large number of chemicals like oxygen, nitrogen-, … Read more Components of Ecosystem
Ecology is defined “as a scientific study of the relationship of the living organisms with each other and with their environment.” The classical texts of the Vedic period such as the Vedas, the Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas-Upanishads contain many references to ecological concepts .The Indian treatise on medicine, the Caraka- Samhita … Read more ECOLOGY- An Introduction
The continental drift theory is the theory that once all the continents were joined in a super-continent, which scientists call Pangaea. Over a vast period of time, the continents drifted apart to their current locations. Alfred Wegener first supported continental drift. Wegener’s explanation of continental drift in 1912 was that drifting occurred because of … Read more Continental Drift Theory – Tectonics
Orogenic or the mountain-forming movements act tangentially to the earth surface, as in plate tectonics. Tensions produces fissures (since this type of force acts away from a point in two directions) and compression produces folds (because this type of force acts towards a point from two or more directions). In the landforms so produced, … Read more Orogenic or the mountain-forming movements
The interaction of matter and temperature generates these forces or movements inside the earth’s crust. The earth movements are mainly of two types: diastrophism and the sudden movements. The energy emanating from within the earth is the main force behind endogenic geomorphic processes. This energy is mostly generated by radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction … Read more Earth Movements – Endogenetic Movements
The Crust of Earth It is the outermost and the thinnest layer of the earth’s surface, about 8 to 40 km thick. The crust varies greatly in thickness and composition – as small as 5 km thick in some places beneath the oceans, while under some mountain ranges it extends up to 70 km … Read more Earth’s Layers – Earth’s Composition
Most of the knowledge we have about Earth’s deep interior comes from the fact that seismic waves penetrate the Earth and are recorded on the other side. Earthquake ray paths and arrival times are more complex than illustrated in the animations, because velocity in the Earth does not simply increase with depth. Velocities generally … Read more Earth’s Interior – Earthquake Waves – Shadow Zone
Civilization and Culture of the Pallavas The Pallava rule formed a golden epoch in the cultural history of south India. The period under the Pallavas was marked by considerable literary activities and cultural revival. The Pallavas warmly patronized Sanskrit language and most of the literary records of the time were composed in that language. Due … Read more Cultural Achievements of the Pallavas
The founder of the Chola Empire was Vijayalaya, who was first feudatory of the Pallavas of Kanchi. He captured Tanjore in 850 A.D. He established a temple of goddess Nishumbhasudini (Durga) there. Aditya I succeeded Vijayalaya. Aditya helped his overlord the Pallava king Aparajita against the Pandyas but soon defeated him and annexed the whole … Read more The Cholas: Maritime activities in Sourth-east Asian counturies. Chola administration, art & architecture.
Emperor Harshavardhana, better known as Harsha, lived from 590 to 647 CE and was the third ruler of the Vardhana Empire, the last great empire in ancient India before the Islamic Invasion. He ruled from 606 CE to 647 CE. After Harshavardhana’s death, however, the Vardhana dynasty came to an end and its empire dissolved. India, the land beyond the … Read more Harsha-Vardhan : The last great Hindu ruler of Northern India; cultural achievements during his period.
The Gupta Empire stretched across northern, central and parts of southern India between c. 320 and 550 CE. The period is noted for its achievements in the arts, architecture, sciences, religion, and philosophy. Chandragupta I (320 – 335 CE) started a rapid expansion of the Gupta Empire and soon established himself as the first sovereign ruler of the empire. It marked the end of 500 hundred … Read more The Guptas : Extent of empire; development of language and Literature, art St architecture during the Gupta period.
The Kushanas: Short introduction In the early 2nd century BC, a tribe on the Central Asian frontier of China called Hsiung-nu defeated a neighboring one known as Yueh-chih. After more conflict, the survivors of the Yueh-chih were dislocated west, passing down the Ili river valley and along the southern shore of lake Issyk Kul. This … Read more The Kushanas : Kanishka : Extent of empire, His religious policy; Development of Art, Architecture and Letters during the Kushana period
Foundation of the Mauryan Empire: The foundation of the Maurya Empire in 321 B.C. by Chandragupta Maurya was a unique event in history. Particularly in view of the fact that it was found shortly after Alexander’s victorious campaigns in North-West India during 327 B.C. – 325 B.C. There is no unanimity with regard to … Read more The Mauryas : Extent of empire, Kalinga War and its Impact; Asoka’s Dhamma, Foreign Policy, Development of Art & Architecture during the Mauryan period
In the sixth country B.C. North India was divided into sixteen kingdoms out of which Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha rose into prominence by aggrandizing upon other weaker states.These four states involved themselves in internecine quarrel in which Magadha emerged as the most powerful state and acquired mastery in the political domain of India. … Read more The Rise of the Magadhan empire
The History of Licchavis The Lichchhavis (also Lichchavi, Licchavi) were an important member of the Vajjian confederacy. The early Indian traditions describe the Lichchhavis as Kshatriyas. Scholars reject the theory of foreign origin of the Lichchhavis on the strength of these traditions. But they were degraded to the status of fallen Kshatriyas due to their … Read more The Lichavi and their republican constitution
Although the Rig Veda deals with devotional work of religious nature, yet it gives a vivid picture of the early Vedic civilization. The Vedic Civilization is best understood from the social life, political organisation, economic life and religious beliefs. The Kula or family was the basic unit of Rig-Vedic society. The Kula was headed by … Read more Antiquity and stratification of the Vedic literature; Society, economy and religion during Early (Rig-Vedic) period.
The Aryans came to India in several waves. The earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic people who appeared in the subcontinent in about 1500 BC. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the Dravidians mentioned as Dasa or Dasyus in Rig Veda. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of … Read more Origin of the Aryans
Indus Valley Civilization Indus Valley Civilization was the first major civilization in south Asia, which spread across a vast area of land in present day India and Pakistan (around 12 lakh sq.km). The time period of mature Indus Valley Civilization is estimated between BC. 2700- BC.1900 i.e. for 800 years. But early Indus Valley Civilization had … Read more The Indus Valley Civilization : Origin, antiquity, extent, authorship and main features
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Lohit Ayas Copper Syam Ayas Iron Vanik Traders Gramini Village Head Bhagadugha Tax collector Sthapati Chief Judge Takshan Carpenter Niska Unit of currency Satamana Unit of currency Pana Term used for coin Shresthi Guilds Vihara Buddhist Monastery Chaitya Sacred Enclosure Pradeshika Head of district Administration Nagarka City administration Jesthaka Chief of a Guild Prathamakulika Chief … Read more Important Ancient Terms
Lohit Ayas Copper Syam Ayas Iron Vanik Traders Gramini Village Head Bhagadugha Tax collector Sthapati Chief Judge Takshan Carpenter Niska Unit of currency Satamana Unit of currency Pana Term used for coin Shresthi Guilds Vihara Buddhist Monastery Chaitya Sacred Enclosure Pradeshika Head of district Administration Nagarka City administration Jesthaka Chief of a Guild Prathamakulika Chief … Read more Important Ancient Terms for JPSC (Jharkhand) Prelims and Mains Examination
1. Udaygiri Caves During Chandragupta’s reign at Vidisha, M.P. 2. Angorwatt Temples Suryavarman Ii 3. Vikramashila University Pala King Dharampala 4. Kailash Temple (Ellora) Rashtrakuta king Krishna I 5. Dilwara Temple … Read more Major Monuments of Ancient Period for JPSC (Jharkhand) Prelims and Mains Examination
1. Udaygiri Caves During Chandragupta’s reign at Vidisha, M.P. 2. Angorwatt Temples Suryavarman Ii 3. Vikramashila University Pala King Dharampala 4. Kailash Temple (Ellora) Rashtrakuta king Krishna I 5. Dilwara Temple Tejapala 6. Rathas of Mamallapuram Mahendravarman I (Pallava King) 7. Khajuraho temples Chandelas 8. Martanda temple (Kashmir) Lalitaditya Muktapida 9. Gommateswara (Son of Rishabnath) … Read more Major Monuments of Ancient Period
1. Brahma Duly dowered girl to a man of the same class 2. Daiva Father gives daughter to a sacrificial priest as a part of his fee 3. Arsa A token bride price of a cow & a bull is given in place of the dowry 4. Prajapatya Father gives girl without dowry & without … Read more Different Forms of Marriage Practiced in Ancient India
1. Brahma Duly dowered girl to a man of the same class 2. Daiva Father gives daughter to a sacrificial priest as a part of his fee 3. Arsa A token bride price of a cow & a bull is given in place of the … Read more Different Forms of Marriage Practiced in Ancient India for JPSC (Jharkhand) Prelims and Mains Examination
Nastika Shools of Indian System of Philosophy Charvaka Believes only in materialism. No life beyond death, no soul no god. Jaina The names of two tirthankaras, Rishabhanath & Aristhanemia finds mention in Rig Veda. 540 BC Twenty third was Parsva, son of Ishvaku king Asvasena. … Read more Different Schools of Indian Philosophy
Nastika Shools of Indian System of Philosophy Charvaka Believes only in materialism. No life beyond death, no soul no god. Jaina The names of two tirthankaras, Rishabhanath & Aristhanemia finds mention in Rig Veda. 540 BC Twenty third was Parsva, son of Ishvaku king Asvasena. … Read more Different Schools of Indian Philosophy
I Buddhist Council 500 BC at Ajatsataru . Record the Buddha’s sayings (sutra) and codify Rajgaha Presided by monastic rules (vinaya). Rajgaha is today’s Mahakasyapa Rajgir II Buddhist Council 383 BC at Kalasoka The conservative schools insisted on monastic Vaishali rules (vinaya). The secessionist Mahasangikas argued for more relaxed monastic rules.Rejection of the Mahasanghikas III … Read more Buddhist Councils
I Buddhist Council 500 BC at Ajatsataru . Record the Buddha’s sayings (sutra) and codify Rajgaha Presided by monastic rules (vinaya). Rajgaha is today’s Mahakasyapa Rajgir II Buddhist Council 383 BC at Kalasoka The conservative schools insisted on monastic … Read more Buddhist Councils for JPSC (Jharkhand) Prelims and Mains Examination
Inscription King Aspect Junagarh Rock Rudradaman (Saka) Sanskrit. Says that a dam on the sudarshana lake was constructed by Pushyagupta a governor of Chandragupta Maurya Allahabad Pillar Samudragupta Sanskrit. Composed by Harisena Aihole Inscription Pulakeshin II Mentions … Read more Famous Inscriptions for JPSC (Jharkhand) Prelims and Mains Examination
Inscription King Aspect Junagarh Rock Rudradaman (Saka) Sanskrit. Says that a dam on the sudarshana lake was constructed by Pushyagupta a governor of Chandragupta Maurya Allahabad Pillar Samudragupta Sanskrit. Composed by Harisena Aihole Inscription Pulakeshin II Mentions Harsha defeat by Pulakeshin II. Composed by Ravikriti Vishnuvardan son of King. Gwalior Inscription Bhoja Most famous … Read more Famous Inscriptions
Puranas Divided into sarga, pratisarga, manvantantar, vamsa (genealogical list of kings) & vamsanucharita. 18 main puranas & 18 subsidiary puranas. Vedas Meaning “knowledge”. Rigveda (hymns), Yajurveda (sacrificial formulae), Atharvaveda (magical charms & spell), Samveda. Vedas are called aparusheya (not created by man) & nity Upanishads About 200 in number. Deal with philosophy. Oldest & … Read more Indian Religious Books
Puranas Divided into sarga, pratisarga, manvantantar, vamsa (genealogical list of kings) & vamsanucharita. 18 main puranas & 18 subsidiary puranas. Vedas Meaning “knowledge”. Rigveda (hymns), Yajurveda (sacrificial formulae), Atharvaveda (magical charms & spell), Samveda. Vedas are called aparusheya (not created by man) & nity Upanishads About 200 in number. Deal with philosophy. Oldest & … Read more Indian Religious Books for JPSC (Jharkhand) Prelims and Mains Examination